| Instrument | Energy Source (stimulus) | Analytical Information | Input Transducer | Data Domain of Transduced Information | Signal Processor/Readout |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Photometer | Tungsten lamp | Attenuated light beam | Filter Photodiode | Electrical current | Amplifier, digitizer, LED display |
| Atomic emission spectrometer | Inductively coupled plasma | UV or visible radiation | Monochromator | Photomultiplier tube | Amplifier, digitizer, digital display |
| Coulometer | Direct-current source | Charge required to reduce or oxidize analyte | Cell potential | Electrodes | Time, Amplifier, digital timer |
| pH meter | Sample/glass electrode | Hydrogen ion activity | Glass electrode | Glass-calomel electrodes | Electrical voltage |
| Mass spectrometer | Ion source | Mass-to-charge ratio | Mass analyzer | Electron multiplier | Electrical current |
| Gas chromatograph with flame ionization | Flame | Ion concentration vs. time | Chromatographic column | Biased electrodes | Electrical current |
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